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Introduction
Introduction to Plant Toxicities
Toxic Effects by Organ
Skin
Respiratory Tract
Gastrointestinal System
Cardiovascular System
Liver
Hepatocyte Damage
Mushroom Toxins
Mycotoxins
Kidney and Bladder
Blood and Bone Marrow
Anticoagulants
Bone Marrow Genotoxicity
Cyanogens
Nervous System
Skeletal Muscle and Neuromuscular Junction
Neuromuscular Junction
Skeletal Muscle Damage
Bone and Tissue Calcification
Reproduction and Teratogenesis
Abortifacients
Teratogens
Clinical Study of Plant Poisons
Summary of Plant Toxicities
Introduction to Animal Venoms
Properties of Animal Toxins
Arthropods
Arachnida
Scorpions
Spiders
Agelenopsis Species (American Funnel Web Spiders)
Latrodectus Species (Widow Spiders)
Loxosceles Species (Brown or Violin Spiders)
Steatoda Species
Cheiracanthium Species (Running Spiders)
Theraphosidae Species (Tarantulas)
Ticks
Chilopoda (Centipedes)
Diplopoda (Millipedes)
Insecta
Heteroptera (True Bugs)
Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Hornets)
Formicidae (Ants)
Apidae (Bees)
Vespidae (Wasps)
Lepidoptera (Caterpillars, Moths, and Butterflies)
Mollusca (Cone Snails)
Reptiles
Antivenom
Potential Clinical Application of Venoms
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
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History is replete with stories of the earliest humans using plant extracts and animal venoms for hunting, war, assassination, and political intrigue for millennia. Even the Ebers Papyrus, which dates to around 1550 bc, describes concoctions using plant substances as primary ingredients. The toxic properties of plants and animals often enhance their ability to survive. These toxic adaptations reflect how the organism interacts with its surroundings and with its predators. Some toxic compounds are used primarily to aid an animal in obtaining food while plants have developed toxic properties to specifically ward off being used as food. These toxic compounds are invaluable in the insight that they provide into the systems that they disrupt and poison. One major complication to the study of plant and animal poisons arises from their complexity as mixtures. Studies readily separate and evaluate individual components, but it is very difficult to use purified components to make the original toxin or venom. Nevertheless, extensive study of many toxins has contributed to a greater understanding of their biology and chemistry. Toxins have been utilized as tools to study human biochemistry and physiology in order to pave the way for new pharmaceuticals. In fact, some components are in active development for clinical use. Clinical evaluation of human poisoning is complicated by questionable identification of plant or animal species and the inability to quantify the level of exposure. In this chapter, an overview of specific plant and animal toxins and their effects will precede a short discussion of the considerable effort to harness natural pharmacopeia for clinical use.
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Introduction to Plant Toxicities
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The plant kingdom contains potentially 300,000 species, and the ...